Álvaro de Luna y Jarana (between 1388 and 1390; June 2, 1453), Constable of Castile, Grand Master of the military order of Santiago, and favorite of King John II of Castile.
The Order of Santiago (St. James) was the most powerful of
the Iberian military religious orders, originating as a confraternity of
knights founded by King Ferdinand II of León in Cáceres in August 1170 in order
to protect the southern part of his kingdom against the Muslim Almohads.
Despite later medieval legends that dated the order as far
back as the mythical battle of Clavijo won by King Ramiro I of Asturias (d.
850) against the Moors, the birth of this institution occurred within the
context of the reconquest of Iberia from the Muslims in the second half of the
twelfth century. The appearance of a confraternity under the leadership of its
master Pedro Fernández followed the pattern of other militias such as the
hermandad (confraternity) of Belchite, founded by King Alfonso I half a century
before in Aragon, or the more recent hermandad of Ávila in Castile, which
eventually merged with the Order of Santiago.
The members of the new confraternity were known as the
Brethren of Cáceres until January 1171. In that year they came to an agreement
with Pedro Gudesteiz, archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, who became a member
of the community as an honorary brother and in return received the master and
his knights into his cathedral chapter. Although this pact did not last long,
the brethren chose St. James (Sp. Santiago) as their patron and protector,
whose fame helped them obtain donations. In 1173 Master Pedro Fernández
obtained a bull of protection from the papacy for the community. He probably
presented Pope Alexander III with the first version of the rule of Santiago,
which received papal approval two years later in July 1175.
According to this rule, the membership of the order consisted
of knight brethren, who were dedicated to fighting against the Muslims, and
clerics, who followed the Rule of St. Augustine and most probably came from the
Galician monastery of Loyo. Both clerics and knights bore the insignia of a red
cross in the shape of a sword. These two parallel communities were under the
authority of a master, who was elected from among the knights and governed the
whole order with the assent of the general chapter. This institutional
structure was inspired by the orders of the Temple and the Hospital, but also
by the Order of Calatrava, founded in Castile in 1158.
The founder of the order, Ferdinand II of León, wanted to
use the new militia to protect the southern border of his realm, which was
threatened by Almohad incursions. Master Pedro Fernández, by contrast, had
quite different aims: with the encouragement of the papacy, he tried to give
his order a dimension that would not be restricted to León. In 1171 King
Alfonso VIII of Castile granted it the castles of Mora and Oreja, whose
location to the south and east of Toledo gave them a key role in the defense of
that city. From Afonso I Henriques, king of Portugal, the order received the
castles of Monsanto (1171) and Abrantes (1173) and was thus brought into the
defense of the line of the river Tagus (Sp. Tajo). The expansion of the order
beyond León can be seen from a confirmation by Pope Lucius III (1184), which
mentions possessions in León, Portugal, and Castile, as well as Aragon, France,
and Italy. The order thus turned into an international organization, which,
even though most of its activity was focused on the Iberian Peninsula, still
extended as far as the Holy Land, where the brethren were repeatedly asked to
settle.
The Iberian Peninsula, however, remained the main theater of
operations for the Order of Santiago, whose brethren, during the first fifty
years of its existence, were busy fighting the Almohads under the direction of
the various Hispanic kings. Against these powerful enemies, they first had to
defend the line of the Tagus from Palmela and Alcácer do Sal, in the west, to
Uclés, where the order officially settled after being granted the city by
Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1174. The task was far from easy, and, in such a
difficult context of division between the Christian realms, the order had to
give up certain places: Cáceres (1174), Alcácer (1191), and even Montánchez,
Trujillo, and Santa Cruz (1196), during the great Almohad offensive that
occurred after the Castilian defeat at Alarcos. Despite their difficult
situation, the brethren succeeded in preserving most of their estates in La
Mancha by resisting the Muslim attacks of 1197 against Alarcón and Uclés. From
such bases, it was possible for them to continue fighting and progressively
resume offensive action until the great victory of Las Navas de Tolosa (16 July
1212), which opened the south of the peninsula to the Christian kingdoms.
The determination of the brethren of Santiago was
instrumental in enabling Iberian Christendom to take advantage of the Almohad
collapse. The order fought on every front. In Portugal its members decisively
contributed in 1217 to the seizure of Alcácer, where they established their
provincial seat, before participating in the integration of the Campo de
Montiel and the towns of the Guadiana Valley into the kingdoms of Castile and
León. They assisted in the conquest of the Taifa kingdom of Valencia, where
King James I of Aragon was supported by Rodrigo Bueso, the commander of
Montalbán. During the submission of the southern part of al-Andalus that took
place during the reigns of Ferdinand III of Castile and Afonso III of Portugal,
the Santiaguists relentlessly supported the monarchies until the mid-thirteenth
century, as shown by the involvement of the master Pelayo Pérez Correa, who
actively participated in the capture of Seville in 1248 and in the submission
of the Algarve the next year.
Thanks to such military activity, the Order of Santiago
underwent a great expansion from the second quarter of the thirteenth century.
Numerous donations built up a near continguous bloc of estates extending from
the estuary of the river Tagus, south of Lisbon, to that of the Segura, in the region
of Murcia. Within these possessions, the order organized a system of
commanderies and, in some places, established male and female convents as well
as charitable foundations intended to welcome pilgrims, take care of lepers,
and even to ransom captives. These elements all contributed to the prestige as
well as the wealth of the order, whose influence reached a peak under the long
mastership of Pelayo Pérez Correa (1242–1275), who acquired a level of power
unprecedented among of his predecessors.
The wealth of the order came to be coveted, at a time when
it was also tending to interfere in the domestic policies of the Christian
kingdoms. At the instigation of Pelayo Pérez Correa, in 1272 it secretly
supported the rebellion of those members of the Castilian nobility who were
reluctant to accept the plans of monarchical centralization contemplated by King
Alfonso X. Ten years later, the brethren openly rose up in arms against the
king, who, at the end of his reign, was at war against his son, the future
Sancho IV. As a leading but sometimes unruly element in politics, from the late
thirteenth century Santiago in turn became the object of growing interference
on the part of the Castilian monarchy, which more than ever needed to be
certain of its cooperation. King Alfonso XI was able to manipulate the order to
a greater degree than any of his predecessors: he succeeded in having important
trials concerning the military orders brought under the jurisdiction of the
royal courts, and he forced the Santiaguists to accept his mistress’s brother,
Alonso Méndez de Guzmán, as master of the order in 1338, even granting the
office to the young Fadrique, his own natural son, four years later.
Until the mid-fourteenth century, the brethren regularly
joined the campaigns fought by Castile for control of the strait of Gibraltar
in an attempt to wrest from the Naşrids of Granada and the Marïnids
of Morocco the domination of maritime traffic between the Atlantic Ocean and
the Mediterranean: they not only took part in the fighting but also contributed
to the costly maintenance of several strongholds on the border. Yet the order
also played an increasingly important part in internal conflicts within Iberian
Christendom, particularly in the civil war that rent Castile between 1366 and
1369, during which brethren of Santiago were found in both opposing factions.
By the fifteenth century, there was a constant competition
between the Crown and the local aristocracy for control of the Order of
Santiago’s most important offices. On several occasions in Castile, during the
reigns of John II and Henry IV, such competition within the order degenerated
into armed confrontation. Yet while most kings had been content with installing
men they trusted as heads of the institution, a far more radical solution was
implemented in the time of the “Catholic Monarchs,” Isabella I of Castile (d.
1504) and Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1516). On the death of Master Alonso de
Cárdenas (1493), they obtained from Pope Alexander VI the right to rule the
order until their deaths. This measure was renewed under their successors, and
it paved the way for the subsequent integration of Santiago’s estates into the
patrimony of the Spanish monarchy. In Portugal, where a branch of the order had
become independent from the Castilian center in the early fourteenth century, a
similar privilege was granted by the papacy to King John III in 1551. At this
time in both kingdoms, Santiago entered a new period of its history, and first
became a purely honorary noble corporation largely distant from any form of
military action, before it was dissolved in the modern period, initially in
1874 by the first Spanish Republic, and definitively in 1931 after the
abolition of the monarchy.
Bibliography
Ayala Martínez, Carlos de, Las órdenes militares hispánicas en la Edad Media
(siglos XII-XV) (Madrid: Pons, 2003). Josserand, Philippe, Eglise et pouvoir
dans la Péninsule Ibérique: Les ordres militaires dans le royaume de Castille
(1252–1369) (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2004). ———, “Par-delà l’an mil. Le
discours des origines dans l’ordre de Santiago au Moyen Age,” in Guerre,
pouvoirs et idéologies dans l’Espagne chrétienne aux alentours de l’an mil, ed.
Thomas Deswarte and Philippe Sénac (Turnhout: Brepols, 2005), pp. 183–190.
Lomax, Derek, “The Order of Santiago and the Kings of León,” Hispania 18
(1958), 3–37. ———, La orden de Santiago, 1170–1275 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas, 1965). Martín Rodríguez, José Luis, Orígenes de la
orden militar de Santiago, 1170–1195 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas, 1974). Porras Arboledas, Pedro, La orden de
Santiago en el siglo XV: La provincia de Castilla (Jaén: Caja Provincial de
Ahorros de Jaén, 1997).
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